Leadership: early, contingency and contemporary theories
Leadership is influencing a group toward goals. Theories moved from traits, to behaviours, to contingency models such as Fiedler and Hersey-Blanchard, to transformational leadership.
Leader vs manager
John Kotter drew this distinction. Ideally, every manager should also be a leader.
Early theories: traits and behaviours
| Theory | Who | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| Trait theories | Many researchers | Leaders differ in traits such as drive, desire to lead, honesty and integrity, self-confidence, intelligence, job knowledge and extraversion. Traits alone do not explain leadership. |
| University of Iowa studies | Kurt Lewin | Three styles: autocratic, democratic and laissez-faire |
| Ohio State studies | Ohio State researchers | Two dimensions: initiating structure (task) and consideration (people); high-high was often, but not always, best |
| University of Michigan studies | Michigan researchers | Employee-oriented vs production-oriented; employee-oriented leaders linked with higher productivity and satisfaction |
| Managerial Grid | Robert Blake and Jane Mouton | Concern for production vs concern for people, each 1-9; 9,9 'team management' was said to be best |
Fiedler's contingency model
| Element | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Leadership style | Measured with the least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire. High LPC = relationship-oriented; low LPC = task-oriented. Style is fixed. |
| Leader-member relations | Good or poor: how much followers trust and respect the leader |
| Task structure | High or low: how clearly jobs are defined |
| Position power | Strong or weak: power to hire, fire, reward and discipline |
| Findings | Task-oriented leaders do best in very favourable and very unfavourable situations; relationship-oriented leaders in moderately favourable ones |
| Implication | Since style cannot change, match the leader to the situation or change the situation |
Hersey and Blanchard's situational leadership theory
| Follower readiness | Best style | Task and relationship behaviour |
|---|---|---|
| R1: unable and unwilling | Telling | High task, low relationship |
| R2: unable but willing | Selling | High task, high relationship |
| R3: able but unwilling | Participating | Low task, high relationship |
| R4: able and willing | Delegating | Low task, low relationship |
Other contingency and contemporary views
- Path-goal theory (Robert House): the leader clears the path to goals, using directive, supportive, participative or achievement-oriented behaviour to suit the environment and the followers.
- Leader-participation model (Victor Vroom and Phillip Yetton): how far followers should share in a decision depends on the situation.
- Leader-member exchange (LMX): leaders form an in-group and an out-group; in-group members tend to perform better.
- Transactional leaders exchange rewards for performance; transformational leaders inspire followers to go beyond self-interest (James MacGregor Burns, later Bernard Bass).
- Charismatic-visionary leaders inspire with a clear, attractive picture of the future.
- Servant leadership (Robert Greenleaf) puts followers' growth first; authentic and ethical leadership stress honesty and values.
Contemporary issues affecting leadership
- Power: French and Raven's five bases are legitimate, coercive, reward, expert and referent.
- Trust: built on integrity, competence, consistency, loyalty and openness.
- Empowering employees by sharing decision power with them.
- Leading across cultures: the most effective style differs between countries.
- Leading virtual teams through online communication.
- Developing future leaders through training, coaching and mentoring.
A Sri Lankan apparel line supervisor uses Hersey and Blanchard every day: telling a new machine operator (R1), selling to a keen but inexperienced trainee (R2), participating with a skilled but demotivated worker (R3), and delegating to an experienced team leader (R4).
Short answer: “Distinguish a leader from a manager.” A manager holds formal authority and copes with complexity; a leader influences others, with or without authority, and copes with change by setting direction and inspiring people.
Essay: “Explain the contingency theories of leadership.” Fiedler (LPC, three situational factors, findings), Hersey and Blanchard (readiness and four styles) and House's path-goal theory: one example each, and the shared idea that the best style depends on the situation.
Essay: “Trace the development of leadership theories from trait theories to contemporary views.” Trait theories, behavioural studies (Iowa, Ohio State, Michigan, Managerial Grid), contingency models (Fiedler, Hersey-Blanchard, path-goal), then transformational, charismatic and servant leadership.
Hersey-Blanchard styles by readiness: 'Tea Sellers Pack Dilmah' = Telling (R1), Selling (R2), Participating (R3), Delegating (R4). French and Raven's power bases: 'Little Children Read Every Recipe' = Legitimate, Coercive, Reward, Expert, Referent.