Motivation: classical and contemporary theories
Motivation is the process by which effort is energized, directed and sustained toward a goal. Classical theories focus on needs; contemporary theories add goals, fairness and expectancy.
Classical (early) theories of motivation
| Theory | Author | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| Hierarchy of needs | Abraham Maslow | Five needs: physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualization. A need that is largely satisfied no longer motivates; the next one up does. |
| Theory X and Theory Y | Douglas McGregor | Theory X: people dislike work, avoid responsibility and must be controlled. Theory Y: people enjoy work, seek responsibility and direct themselves. |
| Two-factor (motivation-hygiene) theory | Frederick Herzberg | Motivators (achievement, recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth) create satisfaction. Hygiene factors (pay, policy, supervision, conditions, relationships, security) only prevent dissatisfaction. |
| Three-needs theory | David McClelland | Need for achievement (nAch), power (nPow) and affiliation (nAff). High achievers like personal responsibility, feedback and moderate risk. |
Maslow's hierarchy of needs
Robbins calls physiological and safety needs lower-order (satisfied mainly from outside, such as by pay) and social, esteem and self-actualization needs higher-order (satisfied from within).
Comparing Maslow and Herzberg
| Point | Maslow | Herzberg |
|---|---|---|
| Basis | Needs arranged in a hierarchy | Factors that cause satisfaction vs dissatisfaction |
| Structure | Five levels on one scale | Two separate sets of factors |
| Needs matching hygiene factors | Physiological, safety and social | Pay, security, conditions, relationships |
| Needs matching motivators | Esteem and self-actualization | Recognition, achievement, responsibility, growth |
| Pay | Motivates while lower needs are unmet | A hygiene factor: prevents dissatisfaction only |
| Evidence | Little research support | Based on interviews with engineers and accountants |
Contemporary theories of motivation
| Theory | Author | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| Goal-setting theory | Edwin Locke | Specific, difficult goals that the employee accepts, with feedback, lead to higher performance. |
| Reinforcement theory | B. F. Skinner | Behaviour is a function of its consequences; rewarded behaviour tends to be repeated. |
| Job characteristics model | J. Richard Hackman and Greg Oldham | Five core dimensions: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy and feedback. Related ideas: job enlargement (horizontal) and job enrichment (vertical). |
| Equity theory | J. Stacy Adams | Employees compare their outcome-to-input ratio with others'. Unfairness leads them to cut effort, ask for more or leave. |
| Expectancy theory | Victor Vroom | Motivation depends on expectancy (effort → performance), instrumentality (performance → reward) and valence (value of the reward). |
Expectancy theory in numbers
Many texts write Vroom's idea as Motivation = Expectancy × Instrumentality × Valence. Two sales assistants in a Colombo electronics shop face the same bonus scheme. Nadeesha rates E = 0.8, I = 0.5, V = 0.9. Ruwan rates E = 0.9, I = 0.9, V = 0.4. Who is more motivated by the scheme?
- Nadeesha: 0.8 × 0.5 = 0.40; 0.40 × 0.9 = 0.36
- Ruwan: 0.9 × 0.9 = 0.81; 0.81 × 0.4 = 0.324
- Compare: 0.36 is greater than 0.324.
Nadeesha is slightly more motivated (0.36 vs 0.324). Ruwan trusts the scheme but does not value the bonus; if any one factor were 0, motivation would be 0.
Cross-cultural challenges and unique groups
- Most motivation theories were developed in the United States and may not fit every culture; in some cultures security ranks above self-actualization, and group rewards work better than individual ones.
- A diverse workforce: offer flexible hours, job sharing and family-friendly benefits.
- Professionals such as engineers, accountants and IT staff: value challenging work, recognition, training and autonomy.
- Contingent and temporary workers: the chance of a permanent job, training and fair treatment.
- Low-skilled workers: recognition programmes, respectful supervision and clear routes to better jobs.
- Useful practices: open-book management, employee recognition programmes and pay-for-performance.
For Sri Lankan garment workers, fair pay, safe transport, meals and job security are hygiene factors (Herzberg): they prevent dissatisfaction. Recognition as 'operator of the month', training and promotion to line leader are motivators. EPF and ETF benefits help meet safety needs (Maslow).
Short answer: “State the five needs in Maslow's hierarchy.” Physiological, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization.
Structured question: “Explain Vroom's expectancy theory.” Expectancy (effort → performance), instrumentality (performance → reward), valence (value of reward); all three must be high, with a short numerical or workplace example.
Essay: “Compare Maslow's hierarchy of needs with Herzberg's two-factor theory.” Explain both theories, draw the hierarchy, list motivators and hygiene factors, show how physiological, safety and social needs match hygiene factors while esteem and self-actualization match motivators, and add one criticism of each.
Maslow, bottom to top: 'Please Stop Shaking Every Seat' = Physiological, Safety, Social, Esteem, Self-actualization. Herzberg: Hygiene factors Hold off dissatisfaction; Motivators Motivate.