Learning and motivation theories
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behaviour from experience. Motivation theories split into content theories (what motivates) and process theories (how motivation works).
Learning theories
| Theory | Author | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| Classical conditioning | Ivan Pavlov | Learning by association: a bell paired with food makes a dog salivate to the bell |
| Law of effect | Edward Thorndike | Responses followed by satisfaction are strengthened |
| Operant conditioning | B.F. Skinner | Behaviour followed by a pleasant consequence is repeated |
| Social (observational) learning | Albert Bandura | Attention, retention, motor reproduction, reinforcement |
| Cognitive learning | Edward Tolman; Wolfgang Köhler (insight) | Learning through mental maps and sudden insight |
Reinforcement and its schedules (Skinner)
| Term | What happens | Example or effect |
|---|---|---|
| Positive reinforcement | Add something pleasant | Praise or bonus; behaviour increases |
| Negative reinforcement | Remove something unpleasant | Boss stops nagging once work is on time; behaviour increases |
| Punishment | Add something unpleasant or remove something pleasant | Suspension; behaviour decreases |
| Extinction | Withhold all reinforcement | Ignored behaviour fades |
| Fixed interval | Reward after a set time | Monthly salary |
| Variable interval | Reward after varying time | Surprise inspections |
| Fixed ratio | Reward after a set number of responses | Piece-rate pay |
| Variable ratio | Reward after a varying number of responses | Gives the highest, steadiest response |
Content theories: what motivates
| Theory | Author | Key parts |
|---|---|---|
| Need hierarchy (1943) | Abraham Maslow | Physiological, safety, social, esteem, self-actualisation |
| ERG theory | Clayton Alderfer | Existence, relatedness, growth; frustration-regression allowed |
| Two-factor (motivation-hygiene) theory | Frederick Herzberg | Hygiene: pay, policy, supervision, working conditions. Motivators: achievement, recognition, work itself, responsibility, advancement, growth |
| Acquired (learned) needs | David McClelland | Needs for achievement, affiliation and power |
| Theory X and Theory Y (1960) | Douglas McGregor | X: people dislike work and need control. Y: people seek responsibility and self-direction |
| Theory Z (1981) | William Ouchi | Japanese-style long-term employment, consensus and collective responsibility |
Process theories: how motivation works
| Theory | Author | Key idea |
|---|---|---|
| Expectancy (VIE) theory, 1964 | Victor Vroom | Motivation = E × I × V; if any factor is zero, motivation is zero |
| Porter-Lawler model (1968) | Lyman Porter and Edward Lawler | Effort → performance → rewards → satisfaction; performance leads to satisfaction |
| Equity theory (1963) | J. Stacy Adams | People compare their outcome/input ratio with a referent's; inequity drives action |
| Goal-setting theory | Edwin Locke | Specific, difficult goals with feedback raise performance |
| Reinforcement theory | B.F. Skinner | Behaviour is a function of its consequences |
| Cognitive evaluation theory | Edward Deci and Richard Ryan | Extrinsic rewards can lower intrinsic motivation |
Worked example: Vroom and Adams
(a) Expectancy 0.8, instrumentality 0.5, valence 0.6. Find motivational force. (b) Ravi earns ₹60,000 for 40 hours; Meena earns ₹72,000 for 45 hours. Compare their outcome/input ratios.
- (a) M = E × I × V = 0.8 × 0.5 × 0.6.
- 0.8 × 0.5 = 0.4; 0.4 × 0.6 = 0.24.
- Check in another order: 0.5 × 0.6 = 0.3; 0.3 × 0.8 = 0.24.
- (b) Ravi: 60,000 ÷ 40 = ₹1,500 per hour. Check: 1,500 × 40 = 60,000.
- Meena: 72,000 ÷ 45 = ₹1,600 per hour. Check: 1,600 × 45 = 72,000.
- Ravi's ratio is lower, so he perceives under-reward inequity.
(a) M = 0.24. If valence were 0, M would be 0. (b) ₹1,500 against ₹1,600 per hour: Ravi feels under-rewarded and may cut effort or ask for a raise.
Maslow vs Alderfer
Herzberg's hygiene factors roughly match Maslow's lower needs; his motivators match the higher needs.
NET asks you to classify theories as content or process, match each theory with its author, and test reinforcement types and schedules in short scenarios.
Typical MCQ: “Under Vroom's model, what is motivation if E = 0.8, I = 0.5 and V = 0?” Zero, because the factors are multiplied and any factor at zero makes the product zero. Trap: adding the values instead.
Typical MCQ: “In Herzberg's theory, pay and working conditions are which kind of factors?” Hygiene (maintenance) factors: they prevent dissatisfaction but do not motivate. Trap: calling them motivators.
Typical MCQ: “Does negative reinforcement increase or decrease behaviour?” It increases behaviour by removing something unpleasant. Trap: confusing it with punishment, which decreases behaviour.
Vroom multiplies, Maslow climbs, Herzberg splits: E × I × V; five steps up the pyramid; hygiene versus motivators.